Leo W. Gordon

Rechargeable aluminum (Al) metal batteries are enticing for the coming generation of electrochemical energy storage systems due to the earth abundance, high energy density, inherent safety, and recyclability of Al metal. However, few electrolytes can reversibly electrodeposit Al metal, especially at low temperatures. In this study, Al electroplating and stripping were investigated from 25 \,^∘C to −40 \,^∘C in mixtures of aluminum chloride (AlCl3), 1-ethyl-3-methyl-imidazolium chloride ([EMIm]Cl), and urea. The ternary ionic liquid analogue (ILA) consisting of AlCl3-urea-[EMIm]Cl in a molar ratio of 1.3:0.25:0.75 enabled reversible Al electrodeposition at temperatures as low as −40 \,^∘C while exhibiting the highest current density and the lowest overpotential among all of the electrolyte mixtures at 25 \,^∘C, including the AlCl3-[EMIm]Cl binary mixture. The ILA electrolyte was further tested in a rechargeable Al-graphite battery system down to −40 \,^∘C. The addition of urea to AlCl3-[EMIm]Cl binary mixtures can improve the Al electrodeposition, extend the liquid temperature window, and reduce the cost.

Selenium (Se) is an attractive positive electrode material for rechargeable aluminum (Al) batteries due to its high theoretical capacity of 2037 mA h g^–1 and its higher electronic conductivity compared to sulfur. Selenium can undergo a series of electrochemical reactions between Se(−II) and Se(IV), resulting in a six-electron capacity per Se atom. However, existing Al−Se battery literature is inconsistent regarding the different electrochemical reactions possible, while the conditions enabling the electrochemical reduction of Se to Al₂Se₃ are not well understood. Here, we demonstrate that this electrochemical reduction is achievable using amorphous selenium but is suppressed for crystalline selenium. We further show that the electrochemical oxidation of Se to SeCl₄, which occurs at higher potentials, reduces the long-range order of crystalline Se and enables its discharge to Al₂Se₃. Solid-state ⁷⁷Se nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements further establish that the local Se helical structures are maintained upon the loss of crystallinity.

Next-generation batteries demand solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) with rapid ion transport and robust mechanical properties. However, many SPEs with liquid-like Li⁺ transport mechanisms suffer a fundamental trade-off between conductivity and strength. Dynamic polymer networks can improve bulk mechanics with minimal impact to segmental relaxation or ionic conductivity. This study demonstrates a system where a single polymer-bound ligand simultaneously dissociates Li⁺ and forms long-lived Ni²⁺ networks. The polymer comprises an ethylene oxide backbone and imidazole (Im) ligands, blended with Li⁺ and Ni²⁺ salts. Ni²⁺–Im dynamic cross-links result in the formation of a rubbery plateau resulting in, consequently, storage modulus improvement by a factor of 133× with the introduction of Ni²⁺ at r_Ni = 0.08, from 0.014 to 1.907 MPa. Even with Ni²⁺ loading, the high Li⁺ conductivity of 3.7 × 10^–6 S/cm is retained at 90 \,^∘C. This work demonstrates that decoupling of ion transport and bulk mechanics can be readily achieved by the addition of multivalent metal cations to polymers with chelating ligands.

Abstract Chloroaluminate ionic liquids are commonly used electrolytes in rechargeable aluminum batteries due to their ability to reversibly electrodeposit aluminum at room temperature. Progress in aluminum batteries is currently hindered by the limited electrochemical stability, corrosivity, and moisture sensitivity of these ionic liquids. Here, a solid polymer electrolyte based on 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride-aluminum chloride, polyethylene oxide, and fumed silica is developed, exhibiting increased electrochemical stability over the ionic liquid while maintaining a high ionic conductivity of ≈13 mS cm^–1. In aluminum–graphite cells, the solid polymer electrolytes enable charging to 2.8 V, achieving a maximum specific capacity of 194 mA h g^–1 at 66 mA g^–1. Long-term cycling at 2.7 V showed a reversible capacity of 123 mA h g^–1 at 360 mA g^–1 and 98.4% coulombic efficiency after 1000 cycles. Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy measurements reveal the formation of five-coordinate aluminum species that crosslink the polymer network to enable a high ionic liquid loading in the solid electrolyte. This study provides new insights into the molecular-level design and understanding of polymer electrolytes for high-capacity aluminum batteries with extended potential limits.

Rechargeable aluminum-organic batteries are composed of earth-abundant, sustainable electrode materials while the molecular structures of the organic materials can be controlled to tune their electrochemical properties. Aluminum metal batteries typically use electrolytes based on chloroaluminate ionic liquids or deep eutectic solvents that are comprised of polyatomic aluminum-containing ions. Quinone-based organic electrodes store charge when chloroaluminous cations (AlCl₂⁺) charge compensate their electrochemically reduced carbonyl groups, even when such cations are not natively present in the electrolyte. However, how ion speciation in the electrolyte affects the ion charge storage mechanism, and resultant battery performance, is not well understood. Here, we couple solid-state NMR spectroscopy with electrochemical and computational methods to show for the first time that electrolyte-dependent ion speciation significantly alters the molecular-level environments of the charge-compensating cations, which in turn influences battery properties. Using 1,5-dichloroanthraquinone (DCQ) for the first time as an organic electrode material, we utilize dipolar-mediated solid-state NMR experiments to elucidate distinct aluminum coordination environments upon discharge that depend significantly on electrolyte speciation. We relate DFT-calculated NMR parameters to experimentally determined quantities, revealing insights into their origins. The results establish that electrolyte ion speciation impacts the local environments of charge-compensating chloroaluminous cations and is a crucial design parameter for rechargeable aluminum-organic batteries.

Rechargeable aluminum–organic batteries are of great interest as a next-generation energy storage technology because of the earth abundance, high theoretical capacity, and inherent safety of aluminum metal, coupled with the sustainability, availability, and tunabilty of organic molecules. However, the ionic charge storage mechanisms occurring in aluminum–organic batteries are currently not well understood, in part because of the diversity of possible charge-balancing cations, coupled with a wide array of possible binding modes. For the first time, we use multidimensional solid-state NMR spectroscopy in conjunction with electrochemical methods to elucidate experimentally the ionic and electronic charge storage mechanism in an aluminum–organic battery up from the atomic length scale. In doing so, we present indanthrone quinone (INDQ) as a positive electrode material for rechargeable aluminum batteries, capable of reversibly achieving specific capacities of ca. 200 mAh g^–1 at 0.12 A g^–1 and 100 mAh g^–1 at 2.4 A g^–1 . We demonstrate that INDQ stores charge via reversible electrochemical enolization reactions, which are charge compensated in chloroaluminate ionic liquid electrolytes by cationic chloroaluminous (AlCl₂⁺ ) species in tetrahedral geometries. The results are generalizable to the charge storage mechanisms underpinning anthraquinone-based aluminum batteries. Lastly, the solid-state dipolar-mediated NMR experiments used here establish molecular-level interactions between electroactive ions and organic frameworks while filtering mobile electrolyte species, a methodology applicable to many multiphase host–guest systems.

Phosphorus pentoxide (P₂O₅) is investigated as an acid scavenger to remove the acidic impurities in a commercial lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆) carbonate electrolyte to improve the electrochemical properties of Li metal batteries. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements reveal the detailed reaction mechanisms of P₂O₅ with the LiPF₆ electrolyte and its impurities, which removes hydrogen fluoride (HF) and difluorophosphoric acid (HPO₂F₂) and produces phosphorus oxyfluoride (POF₃), OF₂P–O–PF₅– anions, and ethyl difluorophosphate (C₂H₅OPOF₂) as new electrolyte species. The P₂O₅-modified LiPF₆ electrolyte is chemically compatible with a Li metal anode and LiNi_0.6Mn_0.2Co_0.2O₂ (NMC622) cathode, generating a PO_xF_y-rich solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) that leads to highly reversible Li electrodeposition, while eliminating transition metal dissolution and cathode particle cracking. The excellent electrochemical properties of the P₂O₅-modified LiPF₆ electrolytes are demonstrated on Li||NMC622 pouch cells with 0.4 Ah capacity, 50 μm Li anode, 3 mAh cm^–2 NMC622 cathode, and 3 g Ah^–1 electrolyte/capacity ratio. The pouch cells can be galvanostatically cycled at C/3 for 230 cycles with 87.7% retention.

Today’s electrochemical energy storage technologies aim to combine high specific energy and power, as well as long cycle life, into one system to meet increasing demands in performance. These properties, however, are often characteristic of either batteries (high specific energy) or capacitors (high specific power and cyclability). To merge battery- and capacitor-like properties in a hybrid energy storage system, researchers must understand and control the co-existence of multiple charge storage mechanisms. Charge storage mechanisms can be classified as faradaic, capacitive, or pseudocapacitive, where their relative contributions determine the operating principles and electrochemical performance of the system. Hybrid electrochemical energy storage systems can be better understood and analyzed if the primary charge storage mechanism is identified correctly. This tutorial review first defines faradaic and capacitive charge storage mechanisms and then clarifies the definition of pseudocapacitance using a physically intuitive framework. Then, we discuss strategies that enable these charge storage mechanisms to be quantitatively disentangled using common electrochemical techniques. Finally, we outline representative hybrid energy storage systems that combine the electrochemical characteristics of batteries, capacitors and pseudocapacitors. Modern examples are analyzed while step-by-step guides are provided for all mentioned experimental methods in the Supplementary Information.